A fascinating exploration of the origins of the Michelin brand, this episode dives deep into the history of rubber, the invention of the pneumatic tire, and how two brothers transformed a struggling rubber factory into a tire manufacturing giant. The discussion covers their pivotal role in the development of the automobile industry and the creation of the Michelin Guide, which revolutionized dining and travel. With anecdotes about early bicycles, the Paris-Bordeaux race, and the Michelin Man's quirky history, this episode is packed with engaging stories and insights into how a tire company shaped modern culture.
Topics:history of rubberpneumatic tiresMichelin Guideautomobile industryParis-Bordeaux raceMichelin Manbicycle evolutioncultural impact of tiresrestaurant ratingsadvertising history
From bouncing rubber balls in the jungle to a couple of French brothers trying to keep their grandfather’s rubber shop alive, this is where things get weird. Tires that blew apart in the dust, a car called the Eclair that barely beat a horse, and a creepy stack of white tires drinking glass shards for fun. Out of all that chaos came a little red book that turned into one of the most powerful institutions in the world. This episode of Overcrest is about bicycles, busted roads, early cars, and a mascot that still looks like nightmare fuel, and how all of it accidentally reshaped the way we drive, eat, and travel.Get cool stuff and Support this show:https://www.overcrestproductions.com/driversclub
"...unbelievable, which is one of the reasons why the Model T was so special is because it was actually the eve..."
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Hey guys, welcome to Overcrest. I'm Chris. And I'm Jake. Hello, Jake. How's it going? Hello, Chris. It's good. What have you got for us today? I have a deep dive into a history story. Just like the good old days, Chris, we're going to go back. I don't think we should call them history stories because
I was thinking of my kids. Like if I told my kids history class, that's boring. If I said Irene, I need to sit down right here. I'm going to tell you a history. Sorry, I should be like, okay, so this is a exciting, crazy tale that I'm going to tell you a history tale, a tale story, a story at the origin of something that you may know. Overcrested origin story. Yeah, yeah, okay. But that makes it sound like it's the origin.
story of us. Well, that's where the world really began anyway. Yeah, obviously that sure. I don't know. We got to come up with a better. Well, okay, I'm just going to dive right into it. Then our story starts in Claremont, Theron, a city in central France. Oh, yes, get ready. There's going to be a lot of French accents here. Oh, no. Oh, yes, so grab blue. Oh, baby.
It was 1889, Chris, two brothers, Andre and Ed Ward inherited their grandfather's struggling rubber factory. It wasn't glamorous. This isn't like, oh, blue bloods inheriting the grandfather's factory must be nice. Now, it was like a pretty small operation that wasn't doing well. And they're like, oh, great.
The little shop it turned out basically like hoses and gaskets and balls. It was like industrial odds and ends. But to really understand kind of what the brothers inherited in this entire industry, you have to take a step back. So rubber, it turns out, it's not like a modern industrial creation or modern marvels, not like plastic or bake.
No, for thousands of years, in fact, indigenous people in the Amazon tapped the latex sap of the Hivea brassianicist tree, which I'm sure is Latin that I pronounced incorrectly.
They just chew on it.
Well, yes, they did chew on it. But no, they actually were pretty industrious themselves thousands years ago. They waterproof cloth with it sealed containers, like they use it like wax and made balls for ritual games, which
rubber small balls for ritual games, wasn't it? Was it the am no, the Aztec or the Elbow game with the head with the human head that they have that's what I'm picturing here, they probably, you know, dipped it in rubber, I guess.
The Olmec Maya and Aztec civilizations all were playing with their bouncy rubble rubber centuries before Europeans that even imagined such a thing. So when samples of this.
What slow down slow down a little bit, buddy, this is a long one. So I'm excited. It's okay slow down. Okay, it's okay. So you have all these ancient civilizations. They knew about rubber. I didn't know that I thought rubber was probably more of a modern thing.
Well, it's an organic. It's an organic substance.
Correct. And when samples of this strange material reached Europe in 1700s, it caused a stir.
The English scientist Joseph Priestley noticed that a small lump of it could literally rub out pencil marks on a page and the name stack rubber.
That's where it came from. Yes, I got that's ridiculous. Literally a pencil eraser is the name of the substance.
Well, I had what did you want it to be called?
I don't know, like, let's stuff.
Are you serious right now?
Rubber. That is like a one single use. I not even like the best one. But it's like, uh, you could rub things with it.
I don't know why I was suddenly getting bored. I don't think they were making super balls and bouncing on the cobblestone roads outside of the London bridge or something.
As texts were, I guess, but, uh, okay. So anyways, here's why this does make sense.
They used it for rubbing out pencil. They use it as an eraser, because raw rubber was kind of actually useless for any industry.
Was it kind of just like gooey and like, so yes, in when it was warm, like summer heat, it just melted into a sticky goo. It was sap.
It was basically just tree sap. In the winter, it turned brittle and cracked again, just like, I don't know, pine sap.
It wasn't until a breakthrough came about vulcanization.
Yes. Okay. What is vulcanization?
39 Charles Goodyear. Yes, that good year discovered that heating rubber with sulfur made it stable, elastic, and weather resistant.
Here's the vulcanization. I think of like the, we talked about the, you know, well, you weren't here because your internet died.
But we talked about how the scientists would just start throwing materials together to see what happened.
Oh, yeah. I'm just imagining like a, a, a, a, a rubber. And well, let's try this material, shake it up. Okay. Nothing happened. Let's put some salt in there. Okay. Nothing happened.
They just start throwing mercury or, or who knows what? A gallium into these things just to see what the material would do until something would happen.
I don't know why I thought of gallium. I don't know. That's a bizarre one. That's, that's so, that's obscure. Yeah.
So, uh, Goodyear was the one that basically was able to create vulcanization, which is like the process of it, like, hardening, right?
Because, uh, pee, uh, no, not PVC. What is it?
RTV stands for room temperature vulcanizing. Did you know that? So like, RTV sealant or RTVZ, like, you know, silicone.
If you look on the bottle, it's RTV. Yep. So vulcanizing just means like, hardening.
Um, suddenly, rubber was transformed from a natural curiosity into an industrial miracle.
Chris asked me what came first. Spock came later, right?
Because he's a vulcan prosper. Yes, he's the vulcan. Is there any tie-ins?
That is not a tangent. I went down. Um, feel free to please look that up right now.
I, I will while you, you can keep going. Yeah. Uh, yeah.
So by the mid 19th century, it was everywhere. Hoses, boots, waterproof jackets, gaskets,
and eventually, even tires, like our own Nokia.
Our friends are Nokia and tires. They also use rubber. It turns out they have their latest tire.
The AS01 surpassed. It's a high performance. All season tired.
Might specifically for drivers want the most out of their cars.
I believe it still has the air amid sidewalls. Uh, for sure, the outpost does, which means
not only did they add sulfur to the rubber, they also added air amid and made it basically
bulletproof, which is amazing. Um, you know, the, the surpass is amazing because it does have
that performance that you would expect from a high performance tire, but also the grip traction
and kind of durability reliability of an all season tire won't leave you stranded if the road
or the weather gets rough. Um, I used the outposts on my cayenne. That was amazing. I used, uh,
Haka Politas on the Audi. I used the WR6 on the other Audi I had.
I know Keynes are great tires. They have a 55,000 mile warranty.
It also offers Nokia's pothole protection. If you happen to damage your tire,
we got him to pair. Nokia will replace it for free.
Beyond repair tires.com.
Beyond. So the word Vulcan comes from Roman mythology.
Okay.
What was Vulcan is the Roman god of fire volcanoes and metal working.
Oh, so yeah. So it was named Vulcan because of the Vulcan god, not because of rubber.
So it's rubber and Vulcan, it was named Vulcanization because of the, you know,
fire and volcanoes and a heating process and spock because it's a Vulcan god.
It wasn't. Spock was named Spock.
And then you have the St. Paul winter carnival Vulcans, which that's a local thing, right?
Yeah, that's just it's Roman. It's Roman mythology.
It's all it's all Roman mythology.
God goes back to gods. Got it. Okay.
Well, Chris, by the 1860s and 70s, Europe was in the middle of a love affair.
A love affair with the bicycle.
Oh, I thought you were going to say rubber.
Not yet. Not yet.
And now I'm going. I'm not going there.
Okay, it began with an awkward contraption called the Bone Shaker.
We did a whole story on Penny Farthings and Bone Shakers, very, very early on.
Very long time ago, 30 or something.
So the Bone Shaker was basically the very first bicycle.
Wooden wheels, iron tires and a ride so rough over typical cobblestone that it
lived up to its name, the Bone Shaker.
Then came the Penny Farthing, which, of course, was the old time, a big wheel in front,
an eity-bitty one in the back.
It looks ridiculous, but it was fast because of that big front wheel.
Except, yeah, until he hits some gear and then tumbled head first.
Right over, or panels.
The real turning point came in the 1880s with what was dubbed the safety bicycle.
And this is kind of your standard design, right?
So it had equal size wheels, pedals driven by a chain.
And crucially, pneumatic rubber tires.
The bicycle became a cultural revolution.
Fortenary people, it was a affordable freedom.
No horse needed.
No train ticket required.
These were not pneumatic tires you wanted.
These were just solid rubber.
I believe you were right.
You're right.
Yes.
Are you getting ahead of myself now?
No.
I don't know.
Do you see anything?
I have nothing on the screen, but you're dumb face.
Okay.
So I don't have anything else to go off of.
So I'm just, I thought those tires were just...
They may have been pneumatic, but they weren't, I'll get to it.
Okay.
Some might have been air-filled, but anyways.
Oh, look at that thing.
Yeah, there it is.
That's the safety bicycle.
There you go.
Looks safe.
All of a sudden, well, compared to a penny-farthing,
or a thousand shaker,
and Britain, France, and Germany are all around Europe,
cycling clubs, spring up everywhere in Paris,
fashionable women, they were scandalizing
plight society by trading skirts for bloomers.
So they get ride, which I think are just poofy pants.
They're poofy pants, yes.
I think bloomers is just their underwear
that they had under the dresses.
Was there bloomers?
Oh, yes.
That's why it was scandalous.
Oh, that is scandalous.
They couldn't even put their husband's pants on.
I guess.
I like this quote.
In America, Susan B. Anthony declared
the bicycle has done more to emancipate women
than anything else in the world.
Free, well, what, what, think about,
yeah, there's the bloomers as just the underwear.
It's just underwear.
So think about this.
This is why what is worth challenging society like that?
It wasn't that bikes were fun to ride.
It was freedom of travel.
It was, it was a tool.
Yeah, it was a tool.
It was worth being, because you could go much, much farther
than you could ever walk.
So it was worth it to ride around in your underwear.
That's how valuable that tool was.
Yes, you're right.
I mean, if I had to, if I had to be in my underwear
to drive my car, I would be no totally worth it,
totally worth it.
I've actually been in my underwear.
I'm sure you have.
Yes, when it's really, really hot.
I remember I was with a, with a friend,
his name was Tim Davis.
And I was in my white 9-11.
We were in Chicago, which is the worst place in the world.
It is, it was hot as hell and Chicago is hell.
So it really goes well together.
And we were just stuck on the, on what is it called?
The, not the turn pike.
What do they call it there?
The, oh, it's the sky way.
Like the Chicago sky, whatever.
Yeah, whatever.
It's really got that cool neon sign that says Chicago on it.
It looks neat.
And you think you're going to be going to a great place
and then it's Chicago.
And it's not.
And it was, it was 90,000 degrees.
And I just remember just taking my clothes off.
And eventually I was sitting there in my boxers.
And my buddy, Tim was also in his boxers.
And we're just sitting there.
The doors are open.
And we're just like legs out the door,
trying desperately to be cool.
Just in traffic.
Worth it.
Oh, worth it.
I would, to, to be able to have that freedom travel.
It looked cool.
But you were probably cooler temperature wise.
However, I was not challenging societal norms at the time.
No, well, not that we know of.
No, economically, the bicycle boom created a massive demand
for parts and ball bearings, steel tubing, chains.
Most of all, tires.
This was the first time vulcanized rubber
was being consumed at scale.
By 1890, cycling wasn't just a fad.
It was an industry worth millions.
And it was this booming market that gave the brothers,
Andre and award their opening.
The older of the two, Andre, was an engineer
who thought in terms of markets and empires.
He was a strategist, a salesman and a marketer.
The younger Edward, on the other hand, was a problem solver.
It was him in 1891 who thought up the idea
that these bikes could have tires that were both pneumatic
and removable, replaceable.
Before this, fixing a tire meant literally
ungluing the tire from the rim.
Yes, so it was a solid core tire,
basically just a tonka rubber.
So yeah.
So suddenly Edward's design writers
everywhere could not only repair a puncture in minutes,
they could also, hey, look, sell more tires,
many more tires.
The invention changed everything.
The one small factory was now booming,
known as a serious manufacturer of bicycle tires.
This is in France.
This is in France in 1891.
Don't get ahead of me, Chris.
I just want to make sure I'm going to say
I want to make sure I'm on the same page
of where we are geographically.
That's all.
I got to say it was an American.
You'd be saying Edward, because we're in France.
I can't do right away.
French.
I did it.
French, yes, we are still in France.
I'm just trying to help out the listener here.
On the tray and Edward did a spell,
not just Edward, it is E with a tilde,
D-O-U-A-R-D.
Oh, geez.
Edward sounds like something
where people would name their kids here in America now.
Oh, spell it like this.
You'll be special.
Not Ed or Eddie, it's Ed-O-A-D.
So the brother sponsored bicycle races,
plastered their name across the countryside
and became synonymous with innovation.
These are the guys like, oh yeah,
they invented the inflatable, replaceable tire.
Amazing.
But the brothers, they weren't content.
They're already looking ahead at the next industry.
If a pneumatic tire could transform the bicycle,
why not this newfangled contraption?
The wheelbarrow?
The automobile.
Oh, no, no, no, no, Chris,
not the wheelbarrow.
It's worth pausing to kind of gain a little context here
because it's 1895, right?
The automobile was hardly commonplace.
France, which was supposedly the most
car-friendly nation in Europe at the time,
had fewer than 3,000 registered vehicles.
These weren't mass-produced machines
rolling off assembly lines yet.
This was far before Henry Ford
and Detroit for production lines.
Every car was essentially a hand-built curiosity
cobbled together by engineers and tinkerers.
They were crude, most still looked like carriages
with engines bolted to the back.
They were noisy, unreliable, expensive,
and often terrifying to everyone on the road,
including horses and pedestrians.
They didn't even start to boast.
They didn't really have points.
Do you remember, again, now I'm going way back
to a very early episode,
like the origin of cars,
where they literally had the flag man going ahead of the vehicle
to warn the horses to get off the road
because they were just that loud and terrifying.
It was not a tool of any kind.
It was a novelty.
No, it was a novelty.
As for the wheels that these novelties rode on,
they weren't wearing anything close
to what we'd call a tire today.
The majority ran on wooden carriage wheels
banded with a solid iron hoop.
Sometimes they coated that with rubber
if they wanted a little more traction.
They were durable, sure,
but the ride was absolutely punishing.
Bone shaker, but car version.
Yes, the car.
The teeth rattler, I don't know.
It was, yeah, not good.
Molar machine.
But this was the market that the brothers faced.
This was a tiny experimental,
absurdly expensive,
and at the time, not a specially practical industry.
Cars were novelties, like we said,
basically motorized toys for the rich.
But Andre and Edward saw something others didn't.
They believed the automobile wasn't just a fad.
It had a future,
and that future would ride on automatic tires.
And so, first, do you know what they did?
They're French.
They're building a car.
They called up our friends at FCP Eurocris.
They went right on the line.
They went to www.fCPEuro.com.
Okay.
And so, they ordered up all the parts they needed
for the French vehicle,
which I don't actually know that FCP Euro
does any citrons or peaches.
But they do have all sorts of parts for BMW's,
Porsche's, Volvo, Audi, Volkswagen, and more.
It's a one-stop shop with over 275,000 unique products,
including expert assembled kits to make shopping simpler.
They take the guesswork out of the shopping process,
and we're wondering what parts you need to do any job.
It's just set to go right there.
And of course, you have your instructional videos
that they have a whole catalog of how to use in DIY.
It's awesome.
They also, of course, have their lifetime replacement guarantee.
Even wear items like wiper blades, brake pads,
and oil filters.
You can just box them up, send them back,
and they'll give you a refund.
It is the best guarantee and warranty in the industry.
They also have the opening of their distribution center
on the West Coast, Mesa, Arizona.
So they're shipping parts from both coasts,
so you can get it in three days or less anywhere in the country
with free shipping.
So check them out today, FCP Euro.com,
take advantage of that free shipping
with any order over $49.
Okay, so Chris, how do you prove your idea, your concept?
How do you prove that, okay,
these pneumatic tires can work on these crazy mechanical
beast called cars?
You have to use it.
It's a use case.
You have to test your metal.
And so which wet better way to show it off
and test the metal of an innovation
than in the heat of competition.
Yes.
Yes, that's right.
The brothers went racing.
They entered their car in the 1895 Perry Bordeaux
Perry race.
Now, this wasn't quite the first automobile race in history.
That distinction goes to literally just the year prior.
The organizer Le Petit Genel,
a Parisian newspaper that loved publicity stunts,
put on a horseless carriage contest.
This was the previous year,
the very first motor race in history
which was basically more of a reliability trial than a true race.
And it was kind of what you expected.
Just like Le Mans.
Contractions showing up that maybe worked or didn't.
But by 1895,
the Paris Bordeaux Perry race was different.
It was the first long distance automobile race.
It was very close to a Le Mans.
It was an endurance race.
Chris, the rules were simple.
Driver machine from Paris to Bordeaux
and back without any outside assistance.
22 cars started the race that year.
Mostly, these were one off Michigan's built in workshops
or even the back of carriage houses.
There was no standard design.
Some entrance ran on steam power,
hulking boilers, sloshing with water,
constantly needing fuel stops,
hissing and spitting as they lurched down the road.
Others were petrol burning contraptions,
primitive internal combustion engines,
with only a few horsepower,
loud enough to rattle windows and entire villages
as they passed down the road.
And there was other like really bizarre hybrid designs,
cars that ran on either compressed air
or both gas and steam engines
or even electric prototypes with massive short-lived batteries.
So the Paris Bordeaux Paris race
was a true proving round of innovation and technology.
And one of those cars
wasn't just about finding the fastest driver.
It was about discovering
which technology could even survive the journey.
Now, so these brothers,
the entry into the race was a modest little car,
nicknamed the Eclare French for lightning.
Which by the way, it was not lightning fast.
But the car itself was...
Well, Jake, by today's standard, it's relative.
It's relative.
It was not as fast as a horse, though.
I don't believe, right?
No, probably not for the whole duration.
This car was actually pretty traditionally
was built by an existing coach builder.
This was not like a home built ground-up thing.
They didn't care to test the car itself.
What they wanted to do was test their new tires.
So they wrapped the wheels with four detachable pneumatic tires.
No one had ever dared to run an automobile
on air-filled tires before.
Every other competitor stuck with the safe choice,
which was solid rubber with carriage wheels and, you know, around them.
15 miles per hour, Jake.
50.
Yeah, no, you're not beating a horse.
You are definitely not beating a horse.
No, like a flat-out horse is 40 miles an hour,
like a race horse.
Yes.
40 miles an hour.
So the Eclare, the little lightning car,
it was not a bone-rattling T-shaking affair.
It was, quote, gliding cushioned by its balloon-like tires.
At least when they stayed inflated, and we're actually working,
because they kept breaking, Chris.
They kept puncturing.
How do they, how do they, how do they, how do they,
they have 132 miles?
That's a long endurance race at 15 miles an hour.
732 miles.
The Eclare's tires blew again and again and again.
The crude early rubber couldn't withstand the sharp stones
and rotted roads.
Each time, Edward and his team swarmed the car,
popping off a rune tire,
patching it, or swapping it,
and set the car back out.
I assume they had little handheld air pumps.
They had bicycle pumps at the day,
right, because bicycles are a thing.
I'm sure they're just sitting there.
Yeah, they, so I was trying to figure out how they did it.
John Boyd Dunlap created the Dunlap valve in 1887.
It was like a fellow metal tube with a rubber sleeve inside.
It was like a one-way seal.
The Schrader valve, as we know it, came like an 1891,
which is, that's a good valve.
So that's been a really long time,
but the Eclare had the Dunlap valve,
which is just like a rubber diaphragm,
which could explain why it went flat all the time,
because that doesn't seem...
What year did that Dunlap valve come around?
1887.
Okay, yeah, so it did use that.
So they basically, it was held shut
by the internal pressure of the tire.
Right.
Yeah, okay.
So here they are, like, you know,
it's, they didn't track how many times they had to stop
and swap tires, but it was a lot.
It was frustrating, exhausting,
and of course, slowed progress during the race
to the point where the brothers finished dead last.
But Chris, here's the thing.
It didn't matter because each and every time
they had to stop and change out tires,
it proved their own point.
The system worked.
You can change a tire on a car or a parent or fix it.
You can change it a lot.
Every time they stopped,
exactly, you know, you have all these, like,
onlookers and little villagers,
later, like, what are they doing?
And they didn't know that you just changed it again.
One point.
Right, like, yeah, exactly two miles earlier.
Good point.
So it was literally just like a rolling billboard for the concept.
Within a decade, no serious car ran on anything,
but pneumatic tires.
The trouble was there weren't many cars
to put tires on in the first place.
By 1900, there were still fewer than 3,000 cars in all of France.
Tires didn't need replacing if nobody was going anywhere.
And so the problem wasn't just selling tires, Chris.
The problem was selling driving itself.
And here's where timing mattered.
Because just as the brothers were thinking about
how to convince people to take the car,
Peris was preparing for one of the most ambitious
spectacles in history.
The exposition universal é of 1900,
attracted more than 50 million visitors.
Excuse me?
This was a world's fair.
And granted world's fairs,
this wasn't the first one.
They weren't new.
London kind of kicked off
things with the great exhibition of 1851.
And then Peris, not to be outdone,
had already staged several world's fairs of its own in 1855,
67, 78.
And most famously, in 1889,
when the French unveiled the Eiffel Tower.
The tower, by the way, was hated by all Parisians when I went out.
They called it an eye-sour.
The giant black smootstack
is stained on the countryside.
Well, think about like French architecture.
Like this beautiful flowing white,
and then it's just stark.
Yes.
You know, that's the one thing I could say
that I don't care if I ever see as the Eiffel Tower.
I just don't care, man.
I mean, it's not on my list, really, but it's not on my list.
It'll be on my Grand Tour of Europe.
You know, when are you going on a Grand Tour of Europe?
I don't know.
Haven't figured it out yet, but I should be a thing I do.
Yeah.
I don't know that traveling to Europe is that
I feel like we miss the bus, man.
Why?
It's just so many people.
So many tourists.
Everything's clawed.
When was there not people in our lifetime?
Like the 70s and 80s, there was far less people
traveling lifetime.
Traveling is like an all-time.
Even I think for COVID was probably good.
Now there's people protesting in the streets
because they don't want people traveling their city
because it makes everything expensive.
And Airbnb's are raising the cost of living
because nobody could live
and all this stuff that's happening.
It just doesn't seem like a good, I don't know.
All right.
I'll wait till the next societal collapse
and then I'll go.
And then go.
Yes.
Yeah.
Hopefully, hopefully we're still around soon enough.
All right.
So massive world's fair.
You talk about people everywhere.
50 million visitors to Paris.
France, again, he want, they want to do out, he,
I know it's, they she.
Oh, Paris is a she.
Yes, it is.
I wanted to outdo herself.
Wait, what?
Outdo?
Undo?
Anyways.
Undo, yeah.
This was not just another fair, Chris.
This was the dawn of a new century.
It's the year 1900.
Paris was determined to show
that it would be the beating heart
of the modern world.
People came from all across Europe,
from America,
from the French colonies,
all around the globe
to see the future on display.
Moving sidewalks,
conveyor belts,
scaring people along the fairgrounds.
Like, like an airport terminal
before that thought was even a thing.
Escalators.
It's like a grocery store thing.
Like the, yeah, exactly.
Escalators were introduced to a public
that had never before stepped onto a machine
and here they are being carried upward.
And at night,
the whole avenue
was blazing with electric lights.
For many visitors,
it was the first time they'd seen a city
illuminated like day
after the sun had gone down.
The exposition,
the universe was,
what told the world,
the future would be dazzling,
bright, fast,
mechanized,
and interconnected.
For the brothers,
it was the perfect opportunity,
the perfect place to launch
their campaign.
If the world was about to step
into a new century machines,
mobility and modern life,
then France's motorists,
few as they were,
they needed a guide
to take them there into the future.
And so in 1900,
the brothers published a free travel guide
from motorists.
If people had the tools to travel,
they figured,
they would be more apt to drive more.
They're taking the danger out of it.
They're making it more commonplace, right?
And as they drove,
guess what, they probably wear out the tires.
They wear out the tires.
Exactly.
So inside this guide,
you'd find maps,
you'd find lists of mechanics,
instructions for fixing a flat tire,
and where to buy fuel.
Places to stay,
even places to eat,
restaurants of exceptional quality
were actually marked with a star in their little book.
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